The Spanish Slave Trade
Spanish slavery can be traced to the Phoenician and Roman eras.
In the time frame of the Roman times to the Middle Ages, the percentage of the slave population was minimal and less than 1% of the total population.
Originally, religion, not race, was not the key to determine who was enslaved.
The idea of race as we know it today did not come about until after Bacon's Rebellion in early 1600s America.
The rules at the time were still to prohibit people from enslaving someone within their same religion.
During the time of the Muslim rule of Spain (known as Islamic Iberia), the Muslim Moors from North Africa controlled much of the Portuguese and Spanish peninsula.
They imported white Christian slaves from the 700s until the end of their rule in the late 1400s.
The Muslim Moorish rulers and local Jewish merchants traded in Spanish and Eastern European Christian slaves.
Non-Muslims were prohibited from holding Muslim slaves, and so if one of their slaves converted to Islam, Jews were required to sell the slave to a Muslim.
The slaves of the Caliph were often European saqaliba slaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe.
These Slavic Europeans is from where the term "slave" was derived.
Female slaves were forced into harems as they were prized for their light skin.
The Iberian peninsula served as a base for further exports of slaves into other Muslim regions in Northern Africa.
With its formal establishment in 1492, the country of Spain was now free from Islamic control and united along with the rise of Catholicism.
Now the imported slaves were now non-Catholic, and mostly females who would serve as domestics and sometimes concubines.
Soon Christian slavery was being phased out, as the Christian kingdoms gained most slaves from military campaigns in the Muslim south.
The Spanish and Portuguese began their trips down the Atlantic coast of Africa.
This began the introduction of sub-Saharan African slaves in larger numbers into Europe.
1492 - Native Population
In 1492 AD, when Christopher Columbus first arrived in the West Indies, it is estimated that there were about 100,000 - 350,000 Native Americans living in the area now known as Florida.
Accepting the conservative estimate of 100,000, the distribution was thought as this:
Timucuans in the northeast, 40,000;
Apalachee and Pensacola in the northwest, 25,000;
Tocobaga in the west-central, 8,000;
Calusa in the southwest, 20,000;
Tequesta in the southeast, 5,000;
Jeaga, Jobe and Ais (pronounced 'ice') in the east-central, 2,000.
There were others, as well as sub-groups, i.e., Saturiwa, Santaluces, Boca Ratones, Tocobaga, etc.
“They be all naked and of goodly stature, mighty, faire and as well shapen… as any people in all the worlde, very gentill, curtious and of good nature… the men be of tawny color, hawke nosed and of a pleasant countenance… the women be well favored and modest…” — Jean Ribault, French Explorer (1560s)
The Seminole tribe was not included in the list above, since they did not exist as a unique tribe until the early 1700s.
1502 - First Europeans in Florida
The Spanish slavers were the first Europeans to arrive in the area of La Florida.
Evidence from maps show that, maybe as early as 1502, the Spanish slave traders in Cuba already knew of the existence of the land of Florida and likely sailed there in order to capture and enslave the native tribes and take them back to Cuba.
After the "discovery" of the New World, the Spanish quickly used it for commercial production and mining.
The
Spanish sent several exploration expeditions through the Central Florida area during the first half of the 1500s.
Their purpose was primarily to look for gold and other exploitable natural resources.
The Native American population was used to perform labor for these pursuits.
However, they soon died in large numbers as a result of war, diseases, and exploitation.
Most of their impact fell on the Timucua.
The need for labor continued to expand, such as for the production of sugarcane.
African slaves did have certain advantages over native slaves as they were already resistant to European diseases and had more familiarity with agricultural techniques.
This preference led to the development of the Atlantic Slave Trade.
1513s - Ponce De Leon Claims La Florida for Spain
In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon landed near what would become
St. Augustine
He claimed Eastern North America for the Spanish crown and gave it the name La Florida, because it was the season of Pascua Florida ("Flowery Easter") and because much of the native vegetation was in bloom.
The Timucua may have been the first American natives to see the landing of Juan Ponce de León near St. Augustine in 1513.
However, this notion is up for debate, as some historians now agree that the Ponce de León landing point was more likely much further south in Ais territory, near what is today Melbourne Beach.
If so, Timucuan contact with that particular expedition was unlikely.
Ponce de Leon was treated better by the Florida Natives on his first trip in 1513 than he was on his second voyage in 1521. It was reported that the Native Americans screamed Spanish words at Ponce de Leon on his second trip. This leads to claims that they had previous encounters with the Spanish slave ships who had visited the Florida coast in between De Leon's voyages and had caused tension between the groups.
1528 - Narváez's expedition
Later, in 1528, Pánfilo de Narváez's expedition landed near Tampa in order to conquer the Timucua, but he did not find the precious metal he expected and also food supplies there were inadequate.
Narvaez led his small army along the western fringes of the Timucua territory from Tampa bay northward to explore the country of the Apalachee and beyond.
Although they, too, lacked gold, he appropriated sufficient grain from them to keep his band alive.
However, facing the stiff resistence of the Apalachee, he had to abandon any idea of a permanent settlement, and his band continued on westward into what is now Texas and eventually reached New Spain (Mexico).
Of the 260 who started out, only three survived.
Unfortunately their account is sketchy, but they spoke of an arid and poor land.
1539 - Hernando de Soto
In 1539, Hernando de Soto, had been appointed Governor of Cuba and La Florida.
Hernando de Soto went over nearly the same route as Narváez, as he landed with 622 men in Tampa Bay.
He found the Americans living in a small town of timber houses with thatched roofs.
The chief's house was near the beach on a high defensive mound, and opposite to it was a temple surmounted by a wooden bird with gilded eyes.
There are many mixed stories about the relations between the Indians and the Spanish, which went from bad to worse as time passed.
In 1539, Hernando de Soto found Juan Ortiz near Tampa.
Ortiz had been allowed to live by the intercession of Tocobagan Chief Ucita's daughter and had even been traded among tribes.
This was 68 years before the similar John Smith and Pocahontas event at Jamestown.
It is believed that this intercession by a chief's daughter may have been a common practice among the Natives as a way of sparing the life of an outsider.
De Soto was in a search for wealth and opportunities for colonization.
Having not found any significant wealth in the area of Tampa Bay, de Soto attacked the surrounding region in order to rob, kill and enslave them as he led his army through the western parts of Timucua territory.
De Soto led his men in a devastating entrada through central and north Florida.
His army seized food, took women for consorts, and forced men to serve as guides and bearers.
De Soto's army fought two battles with the Timucua, killing hundreds.
They also introduced hogs into the forests in order to breed a food supply for later expeditions.
Like De Soto and his explorers, these invasive hogs preyed on traditional Timucuan food sources and, in turn, were hunted by them.
Thus causing even further changes to their lifestyle.
A proposed route for the first leg of the de Soto Expedition, based on Charles M. Hudson's Map
They visited a series of villages of the Ocale, Potano, Northern Utina, and Yustaga ranches of the Timucua on his way to the Apalachee domain
(see list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition).
De Soto's historians mentioning some 20 tribal or local names within the region, including Yustaga and Potano.
People often abandoned their settlements at his approach.
Like de Narváez before him, de Soto eventually marched north in the search for greater amounts of food and wealth.
His army seized the food stored in the villages, forced women into concubinage, and forced men and boys to serve as guides and bearers.
The army fought two battles with Timucua groups, resulting in heavy Timucua casualties.
The Timucua were not as warlike as the Apalachee to the North or the Calusa state of Arawak speakers to the South, although they were certainly capable warriors.
They preferred to find ways to avoid overt conflict.
For example, they would place the head of an enemy on a post outside public buildings or hang his limbs from trees to warn off possible enemies.
Older male captives tended to fare poorly, as sacrificial killings were common place, but women and children were adopted and came to lead normal lives.
De Soto was in a hurry to reach the Apalachee domain, where he expected to find gold and sufficient food to support his army through the winter, so he did not linger in Timucua territory.
De Soto eventually reached the large settlement of Cofachiqui (in modern Georgia), led by a female chieftain who greeted him in a shaded canoe.
In order to avoid disaster, she ordered that all available white and yellow metal be given to de Soto.
This meant copper and the mica sheets which artisans fashioned into ornaments.
However, her efforts were in vain, because there were no local pearls, de Soto's men looted the burial ground to seize 158 kg of the freshwater pearls that were buried there and proceeded to scalp and kill everyone they could (scalping was practiced in early Europe by the Alemani and Franks as a way to destroy a person's charisma).
Eventually, de Soto gave up on Florida because of its lack of gold and the Apalachee were quite effective in their own military defense.
They were excellent fort builders and constantly harassed his troop.
His negative reports discouraged further attacks against the chiefdoms in Florida until the mid-1600s.
Another documented account of the interactions between Native tribes and Europeans is found in the memoirs of Hernando d'Escalante Fontaneda. He was shipwrecked around 1549 when he was only 13 years old. He was taken captive by the Florida Nativess and lived with them for 17 years, before he was released and returned to Spain. Seven years later, Fontaneda wrote his memoirs of his experience.
1562 - Jean Ribault and the French Huguenots Claims Florida for France
Between 1562 to 1564, the French Huguenots under the leadership of Ribault and Laudonnière attempted to form settlements at the mouth of the St John River.
In 1562, as the Spanish were unsuccessful in establishing any viable settlements or defensive forts in the Southeast portion of North America, the French Hugeuenots were able to attempt their own claiming of the land.
However, they were no more successful than the Spanish. The Timucua people resisted this conquest attempt just as effectively as they had resisted being colonized by the Spanish.
In 1562, Jean Ribault, a French Huguenot, arrived at the land of Florida with 150 French colonists. The Huguenots were seeking to escape religious persecution and a war between the Catholics and the Protestants in France. He landed near the mouth of the St. Johns River, at what is now Jacksonville. Since they landed in the month of May, Rebault named it the "Rivière de Mai" [River of May] and erected a stone column claiming the territory for France.
In 1564, French Huguenots, founded Fort Caroline Led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière they founded Fort Caroline in present-day Jacksonville and attempted to establish further settlements along the St. Johns River. along the St. Johns River, in present-day Jacksonville. The French settlers of Fort Caroline were in close contact with the Timucua, but after an initial conflict, the Huguenots were able to establish friendly relations with the local Timicua in the area.
Much of what we know about early Timucuan culture comes not from the Spanish but from the French colony at Fort Caroline.
The sketches and notes made by Jaques le Moyne, one of the French settlers, are one of the few primary resources about the Timucua.
Another French Huguenot colony was established at the present site of the city of Astor along the St. Johns River.
After initial conflict, the Huguenots were able to establish friendly relations with the local natives in the area, primarily the Timucua under the cacique Saturiwa.
They explored the interior along the stream and became acquainted with the tribes of Saturiba (Satouiroua) and Timucua (Thimagoa), as well as with the Potano (Potanou) and the Yustaga (Hostaqua) that had already been visited by De Soto.
One Frenchman, Jacques le Moyne de Morgues, was able to create sketches of the Timucuans which have been of enormous interest to ethnographers studying the culture.
The Huguenots tried to convert the Timucuans to Christianity. Though they were unsuccessful and were converted themselves to the habit of tobacco smoking.
In the following year, 1565, the Spaniards under the command of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés caught the Huguenots in a surprise attack and ransacked Fort Caroline, killing everyone but 50 women and children and 26 escapees.
The Spanish killed everyone there who did not swear they were Catholic.
Despite thei peaceful relations, the Timucuan were persuaded to join in the Spanish attack upon the Huguenots at Fort Caroline.
The rest of the French had been shipwrecked off the coast and picked up by the Spanish, who executed all but 20 of them.
This brought all French settlements in Florida to an abrupt end.
In 1565, Pedro Menendez, on his first voyage, rescued Spanish survivors who had lived with the Calusa tribe for 20 years (1545-1565). They had survived the reported one-a-year sacrifices to the gods.
1560s - St. Augustine and the Spanish Catholic Mission System
After defeating the French and removing them from La Florida, the Spanish then founded St. Augustine as their capital and began the first permanent European colonization of North America.
The history of the Timucua changed forever after the Spanish established St. Augustine and it became the principal center of the Spanish Catholic mission system that spread mostly through northeastern Florida and the land of the Timucua.
Within a few years, the Spanish garrisons were established and missionaries founded missions in each main town of the Timucuan chiefdoms, first under the Jesuits and later under the Franciscans.
Many of the indigenous peoples were forced into the system of
Spanish Catholic Missions in Florida.
Those that would not convert and join the system "willingly" were usually murdered or taken as slaves by the Spanish.
Other indigenous groups had sporadic contact with the Spanish without being brought into the mission system, but many of the peoples are known only from mention of their names in historical accounts.
All of the known Eastern Timucua tribes were incorporated into the Spanish mission system.
However, the Acuera appear to have maintained a "parallel" religious system, with their traditional shamans practicing openly among their Christianized tribesmen.
After the Timucuan Rebellion of 1656, the Acuera left the mission system and appear to have remained in their traditional territory, as they maintained their traditional religious and cultural practices.
They are the only known Timucuan chiefdom to have successfully escaped the mission system.
In spite of one or two revolts, in which several missionaries lost their lives, the Timucuan tribes in general, particularly along the Eastern coast, accepted Christianity and civilization and became the allies of the Spaniards.
The most noted of the missionaries was Father Francisco Pareja, who arrived in 1594.
After 16 years of successful work, he retired to the City of Mexico, where he wrote a Timucua grammar, dictionary, and several devotional works.
These, along with earlier French narratives, are the source of practically all that is known of the language, customs, beliefs, and organization of the Timucuan tribes.
Fate of the Timucua
By 1595, the Timucua population was estimated to have been greatly reduced from 200,000 to 50,000 and only thirteen of the 35 chiefdoms remained.
Due to the impact of Spanish colonizers, along with the immigration of new peoples from the North, such as the Creek, not much of the original culture survived among the Timucuan people.
In the early 1600s, Spanish explorers led by Alvaro Mexia encountered the Timucuan village of Nocoroco (now known as Tomoka State Park, in Ormond Beach).
The village was located along the river, making it a prime spot for fishing, which was the Timucuan’s main source of food.
In 1699, the Quaker Dickenson visited several of the mission settlements and noted the great contrast between the Christian Indians and the savage tribes of the southern peninsula among whom he had been a captive.
Many of the Timucua died from exposure to Eurasian infectious diseases, such as smallpox and measles, to which they had no immunity. Others died from warfare with both the Spanish slavers and colonizers, English raiders from the Carolinas, and immigrating northern tribes. By 1700, the population of the tribe had been reduced to an estimated 1,000.
[Contributors: Jason Brown]